Mathilda Imperatrix

  "It is a measure of the peculiarity of Matlida's position in 1135 that we know so little about her. Her contemporaries, whether friends, enemies, or neutral observers, struggled to decide how to handle or to judge her, how to place her within a political narrative that expected its chief protagonists to be male. As a result, she is an insubstantial, inconsistent presence in the chronicles, rarely seen in more than two dimensions, often disconcertingly portrayed as a marginal figure in her own story." - Helen Castor 

 Matilda, born in England in 1102, was the daughter of Henry I of England and granddaughter of William, duke of Normandy (AKA, William the Conqueror). Her mother, Edith-Matilda was the daughter of Malcolm III, King of the Scots and Saint Margaret of Scotland. What little we know of Matilda we must glean from her male contemporaries. We know nothing of her own looks. We can only speculate based on descriptions of her father. There are also no descriptions of her mother other than as a very holy and pious woman. Matilda was not an only child. She had a brother, William, who was heir to England and Normandy and numerous half siblings from the many affairs of her father's.

In 1109, when Matilda was only seven years old she was betrothed by proxy to Heinrich V of Germany. Her dowry was 10,000 silver marks which Heinrich needed to pay for a large army to help him secure the title of Holy Roman Emperor. The following year Matilda said goodbye to her family and her life in England and set off to meet her husband-to-be in person. Imagine an 8 year old girl traveling from home for over 200 miles in a bumpy carriage to meet a stranger she was meant to spend the rest of her life with as his wife. Heinrich was twenty-four and had been King of the Germans for four years. The royal couple met for the first time at the city of Liege. Traveling onward together to the city of Utrecht in the Netherlands, Matilda and Heidrich were formally betrothed again. When they arrived at the German town of Mainz, Matilda was crowned as Heinrich's queen. Their official wedding took place in January 1114, just before Matilda's twelfth birthday.

Pope Paschal II had crowned Heinrich Holy Roman Emperor by force in Rome but had recanted his anointment as soon as Heinrich and his army had left to return to Germany for the royal wedding. War and political conflict waged back and forth between Heinrich and the Pope and where Heinrich went, so did Matilda. Across the Alps and all through Italy to Rome, Heinrich, Matilda and their imperial army travelled. Pope Paschal fled Rome before Heinrich arrived. There, at St Peter's Basilica, Matilda was crowned Empress. Unfortunately, since she wasn't crowned by the Pope but by an excommunicated Archbishop, she wasn't technically an anointed Empress of the Holy Roman Empire. Officially, she was still titled Queen of the Romans, but for the rest of her life she was known as Mathilda Imperatrix.

 A peace accord was finally reached in 1122 and Matilda and Heinrich began to settle down to their lives. Happiness was not to last. While visiting Utrecht in 1125, Heinrich became ill and and died at the age of thirty-eight. Matilda was a twenty-three year old widow of an Emperor with no heir. She had to give up her own seat as Mathilda Imperatrix. She gave up the lands that Heinrich had given her and returned to her father's lands in Normandy. She was a very eligible widow and must have had several marriage offers but didn't accept any of them. Maybe she hoped she would have the freedom to choose her own path. If that were the case, she was mistaken.

Remember Matilda's brother William who was supposed to inherit his father's throne? Well, he had died in 1120 in a tragic ship wreck. That left Matilda as Henry I's only surviving legitimate heir. Henry had married again after Matilda's mother died but so far that union had not produced a child. At Christmas time in 1126 Henry presented his newly returned and widowed daughter to his nobles at the English court and made them all swear oaths of fealty to Matilda as the successor to Henry's throne. He also once again decided her fate when he married her in 1128 to fifteen year old Geoffroi of Anjou, thus creating an alliance with Normandy's southern neighbor. Matilda seems to have protested marrying such a young and inexperienced boy, especially when compared to Heinrich V. She scoffed at the title of "countess"; she was an Empress. But marry him she did. It doesn't seem like it was a happy union but it achieved two goals that were paramount to Henry. One, Matilda produced male heirs, and two, it added clout to her name as ruler of England when Anjou was joined with Normandy.

Henry, the first of his name to rule England, died on December 1, 1135. Matilda would set a precedent as the first woman to become Queen in her own right of England. No woman had ruled independently before. There were questions raised about Matilda coming to the throne. Even though the nobles had sworn an oath of loyalty (twice actually) to recognize Matilda as the rightful ruler, there was concern. Could a woman rule? Wasn't she the "fairer" sex for a reason? She certainly couldn't act as a warrior ruler which to the Anglo-Normans that was what was required in order to rule successfully. Since there was doubt about her ability, and since she wasn't in England at the time of her father's death, her cousin and Henry's favorite nephew, decided to seize the throne for himself. Stephen of Blois, Count of Mortain,  raced to Winchester and had himself crowned as King of England by the Archbishop of Canterbury. 

When Matilda received word of Stephen being crowned King, she denounced him as a traitor. He had been among the first to swear his oath to Henry to recognize Matilda as the heir apparent. Now he had broken his oath and taken the crown for himself. Years of war ravaged England and threw the country into civil war known as the Anarchy. Sometimes Stephen had the upper hand, then the roles would reverse and Matilda would come out on top. Stephen's army was beaten and Stephen taken hostage by Matilda's half brother at one point. Likewise, Matilda found herself penned down while Stephen's army besieged her castle. Her husband Geoffroi was not much help. He was busy trying to secure lands denied him by Henry in Normandy.

Stephen's brother Henry, Bishop of Winchester had helped his brother take possession of the crown, but when he saw Matilda about to win out over his brother, Henry switched sides and declared Stephen's coronation had been false and he then crowned Matilda queen, styling her "Lady of England".  Many men who would have supported Matilda's claim didn't simply because they thought she was too proud and conceited. Wouldn't you be if you had been Empress and wife of the most formidable and titled Emperor of the Western World? But it was unbecoming and unladylike of her. Wouldn't any female ruler, a female king, try to rule the same way any other king would rule? When she tried to act as king she was criticized. 

Years of fighting, conflict in her own court and criticism from every direction finally led Matilda to the conclusion that even though she was the rightful king, no one would accept the reign of a female monarch. She decided to bring her oldest son Henry to England. Parading Henry around allowed the nobles to realize that a legitimate male heir was right before their eyes. Matilda felt that if she couldn't rule in her own right then she might as well fight for her son's right to the throne. Stephen also saw this and realized that though he might be king for the time being, his own son wouldn't stand a chance against Henry I's grandson. Stephen recognized Henry as his heir and successor. 

Once Stephen died and Henry II was successfully placed on the English throne, Matilda acted as an adviser and counselor to the new king. She tried to act as mediator when her second son Geoffrey unsuccessfully fought Henry for the crown. From her sanctuary in Rouen she guided Henry, watched her other sons die and lived her life in relative tranquility. Matilda died on September 10, 1167 at age 65. She was buried  at Bec-Hellouin abbey where she had been living. The inscription on her tomb reads "Great by birth, greater by marriage, greatest in her offspring: here lies Matilda, daughter, wife, mother of Henry". The abbey and her tomb were destroyed by fire in 1263 but were restored in 1282. In 1684 her bones were reburied in a new coffin at Bec abbey. They were once again destroyed by Napoleon's army and finally buried at Rouen Cathedral where they remain today. 

She-Wolves: The women who Ruled England before Elizabeth - Helen Castor

The Empress Matilda: Queen Consort, Queen Mother and Lady of the English - Marjorie Chibnall

Pocahantas: Princess or Pawn

 Pocahontas is a household name here in the U.S., especially if you (or your child) love Disney, but what is the truth and what is simply myth about this Native American "Princess"? Distinguishing between legend and fact is almost impossible when we are talking about the 1500s, a woman in the 1500s, and a woman from a people who had no written language in the 1500s. All of our accounts are taken from primary and secondary accounts from British subjects who weren't the most accurate when referencing the native peoples they encountered. Most of the early references of the woman we know as Pocahontas came from Captain John Smith who was known to exaggerate the truth.

Native Americans gain several different names during their lifetime as they age and mature. She was known among her own people as Amonute and her family called her Matoaka.  Pocahontas was either a nickname or an alias given to the English to use instead of her real name. She was born around 1596 in what is now Virginia. Her mother is unknown but her father, Powhatan, was chief of the Tsenacommacah; a loose confederacy of about 30 different native tribes that all spoke the Algonquin language. Matoaka was 12 or 13 when she first met John Smith who had been captured by her tribe. It wasn't until much later that Smith recounted this tale which included the famous scene of Matoaka running in to save him from execution by placing her head over his on the chopping block. Much has been made of her actions towards Smith. It is true by Smith's own account that he had spent much of his captivity with Matoaka, each teaching the other their languages. There might have been some friendship or connection but he was much older than Matoaka so love probably wasn't a factor behind her attempt to sacrifice her own life for his. What is more likely is that Smith's execution was a ceremonial sacrifice to the tribe so that he would be seen as no longer an outsider. Smith misinterpreted the actions of Powhatan and Matoaka or chose to represent it as life or death for dramatic effect.

Because of Matoaka's ability to speak English she was sent to Jamestown Settlement as part of Powhatan's trading (and scouting) parties. Matoaka was sent in among the English settlers to trade goods and information. She even helped negotiate the release of some of her people who were being held in Jamestown. Powhatan knew what he was doing sending his "favorite daughter" in to negotiate. Because she was the daughter of the leader of the natives that meant she was important. Trade and good will between the two peoples went well for a while but eventually broke down and Matoaka stopped coming to visit at Jamestown. Matoaka and Smith lost contact with each other and Matoaka was told that Smith had died. In fact he had been wounded and resigned his commission in the Virginia Company and returned to England. Relations further deteriorated between the Powhatans and the settlers and became hostile. This was the start of the first of three Anglo-Powhatan Wars.

During this time Matoaka was married to a man named Kocoum. It is unclear if Kocoum was Powhatan or possibly from a rival tribe know as the Patawomeck. If Kocoum was from the Patawomeck tribe then Matoaka was basically used  the way all princesses are used; as a bargaining tool. If she married into a rival tribe her connection would bring about a peace between the two warring tribes. However, the marriage did not last long. On April  12, 1613 Matoaka was abducted by the Patawomeck who had been convinced by the British to break their truce with Powhatan and switch sides. The English hoped to use her as a hostage to negotiate the release of several English soldiers who had been captured by Powhatan. Kocoum is believed to have been killed in one of the skirmishes of the Anglo-Powhatan Wars. It was during her time as a captive of the English that she met the Reverend Alexander Whitaker. Whitaker made it his mission to convert Matoaka to Christianity. He gave her a Bible and helped her study it during her long days of inactivity. Whitaker even took Matoaka to church on Sundays. It was at one of these church meets that she met a man named John Rolfe. Rolfe, a local tobacco farmer, was a widower with an infant son. Matoaka and John Rolfe became fond of each other and planned to marry but first Matoaka had to fully convert to Christianity and English ways. Chief Powhatan, using his brother as negotiator, agreed to release his English captives, give back the firearms he had stole and also agreed Matoaka could marry Rolfe. Once more Matoaka was used as a bargaining chip to secure a peace with the English.

Whether Matoaka was in agreement with any of these arrangements we do not know. She was eventually baptized into the Christian faith as Rebecca and on April 5 1614 was married to John Rolfe. This seemed to be a peaceful time for Matoaka, her family and the Powhatan and the English settlers. Her son Thomas was born in the spring of 1615. Rolfe had become a high ranking member of the community due to his experiments with his tobacco crop and in 1616 he was asked to serve as part of a delegation returning to England to seek out more people willing to cross the ocean and settle in the New World. Matoaka and Thomas would accompany him and the other delegates back to England. 

In June of 1616 the Rolfe family arrived on the shores of England. There are no written accounts from Matoaka's perspective and so there is no way to know what she thought of England or its people and culture. It seems that in this instance she became a pawn of John Rolfe and the Virginia company as a walking ad to entice people to the New World. A wooden engraving of her likeness was commissioned to be created for mass production. 

Simon Van de Passe first sketched, then engraved the only real -life depiction of Matoaka. After these engravings were distributed and word of Matoaka began to spread through London, she received many invitations for dinners and balls from the aristocracy. Eventually Matoaka even met the king of England himself. On January 5, 1617 Matoaka and her party were invited to Whitehall Palace where they met King James I and enjoyed a banquet and a play. John Smith, long thought dead by Matoaka, heard of her being in England and came to visit her one day. Apparently the meeting was not very favorable to Smith. It must have been a surprise to Matoaka to find out that the man who was her first connection to the English and had so abruptly disappeared was actually alive. That was their only meeting while Matoaka was visiting England.

The dirty air of London did not agree with Matoaka's health and so they moved a bit outside of London to Brentford, but her health really never did improve. But at last the time had come to return to the fresh clean air of her native home. In March of 1617, Matoaka, her family and servants were ready for the return voyage back to the New World. Sadly Matoaka, whose health had been steadily deteriorating became gravely ill. Before the ship could even sail out into the ocean Matoaka passed away. The ship docked at Gravesend where on March 21, 1617 a funeral was held and Matoaka was laid to rest  at St. George's Church far from her beloved home. There is a bronze statue there to memorialize the brave Native American woman who died upon English soil. No one knows what caused her health to decline but the likely culprit seems to be tuberculosis. 

"It pleased God at Gravesend to take this young lady to his mercy, where she made not more sorrow for her unexpected death, than joy to the beholders, to hear and see her make so religious and godly an end." - John Smith

Whatever name she is known by, Matoaka/Pocahantas is a woman well worth remembering. Though it seems everyone in her life used her for their own gain she was a pillar of strength and duty. Her acceptance of her life helped broker peace and save lives on both the English side and for her own people. Who knows what more she could have accomplished if she had lived into old age.

For further reading check out these books:

Pocahantas and the Powhatan Dilemma: The American Portraits Series - Camilla Townsend

Pocahantas: Medicine Woman, Spy, Entreprenuer, Diplomat - Dr Paula Gunn Allen

Eleanor of Aquitaine

In today's blog post we will learn about one of my favorite female historical figures.

A ruler in her own right to the Duchy of Aquitaine, this woman would become queen of two countries and mother to two kings of England. She went to war, made war against her own husband, and was locked away in a tower. The Woman, the Myth, The Legend: Eleanor of Aquitaine.

Aquitaine, a very rich and fertile land, is a region in southwestern France. It's name possibly originated with the Romans and their Latin word aqua, meaning water, since it boarders on the Atlantic Ocean. At one point in it's varied history Aquitaine was declared it's own separate Kingdom when Emperor Charlemagne bestowed the title of King of Aquitaine on his son Louis. After a while the kingdom fell apart and reverted back to a Duchy. Aquitaine grew into one of the most cultured courts in all of Europe. Eleanor's grandfather is touted as being the very first troubadour and the ideas of chivalry and "courtly love" supposedly developed in Aquitaine.  Eleanor came from a long line of Dukes that had ruled over Aquitaine since the year 835 when the Ramnulfids led by Ramnulf I of House Poitiers took control over the lands. 

Eleanor's early life remains unknown to us. Her name was originally spelled Alienor. Named after her mother, it meant "the other Aenor." She was schooled in housekeeping and needlework, but because of the urbane and sophisticated court at Aquitaine she was probably highly educated in reading, writing, languages, poetry, music, dance and a musical instrument or two. We have no factual evidence of what she looked like. No descriptions of her eyes, hair color or stature have been left for us. Even Eleanor's specific birth date is unknown but historians believe she was born either in 1122 or 1124. This would make her between 13-15 in the year 1137 when her father William X Duke of Aquitaine passed away. Eleanor's brother and the only son of William X and Aenor had died some years earlier leaving Eleanor, as the oldest daughter, heir to the Duchy of Aquitaine. Since Eleanor had not yet reached the age of maturity her father had asked Louis VI, King of France to become her guardian. Louis saw a golden opportunity to gain some of the most fertile lands in all of France and he quickly betrothed his young ward to his son and heir, sixteen year old Prince Louis. However, France would only benefit from Aquitaine so long as Eleanor remained married to Louis. The land was hers by right of inheritance and would remain in her name. 

The Prince traveled to Aquitaine in the accompaniment of 500 knights to meet his bride. On July 25, 1137 in Bordeaux's Cathedral of Saint Andre, Eleanor and Louis were wed. After their wedding they traveled to Poitiers, the capital of Aquitaine, where they were crowned Duke and Duchess of Aquitaine. Louis VI, King of France had passed away during their travel from Bordeaux to Poitiers. After their coronations in Poitiers they rushed to Paris to make sure Prince Louis' right to the throne wasn't questioned. Eleanor, a young girl not yet sixteen, became a duchess in her own right and Queen of France all within the span of a few months.

It is generally believed that King Louis was so besotted with the bold and spirited Eleanor that he would do anything for her. He went to war against several important French dukes to gain lands that Eleanor felt should have belonged to her, he spent lavishly and even went against the Pope when Eleanor urged him to take her sister's side in a forbidden romance. Louis had originally been meant for the church and so was a very pious and cautious person. It does seem that for whatever reason he did have a bit of a personality shift after his marriage to Eleanor. Was Eleanor so charming and persuasive that she convinced Louis to go against his own character? Was he so in love with her that he would do anything she wanted; so enraptured that he took her with him when he went to fight in the Crusades? Possibly. But they eventually had a falling out and divorced so I feel this view is slightly exaggerated. Was she just a big nag and he did these things to shut her up? Possibly. I'm sure if we looked closely enough at the political gains that were to be gained from some of his decisions we would see it had more to do with continuing to build a reputation for France than for any crazy love he felt for Eleanor.

Eleanor gave birth to their first child, a daughter they named Marie, in 1145. The next year they both "took the cross" and made plans to fight in the Second Crusade to keep Jerusalem safe from the Turks. It is worth noting that Eleanor took the cross under her title of Duchess of Aquitaine and not Queen of France. This way the barons of Aquitaine who weren't loyal to Louis but were loyal to her would be bound to join the Crusade. Not many people wrote first hand accounts of the Crusades and even fewer wrote about Eleanor's part so we must take rumors, innuendos and implications with a grain of salt. Eleanor brought with her a train of ladies in waiting (some later accounts report at least 300 women), servants and baggage. Here is where Eleanor as a legend begins to take shape.  A Greek historian writing some 50 years after the Crusade described Eleanor and her ladies as wearing armor and riding astride their horses like men. He compared them to Amazons and thus a legend was born. Here was a woman already famed for her beauty, boldness, quick wit and adventurous nature. Being compared to the Queen of the Amazons only heightened her fame and appeal.  

Unarguably the undertaking of this Second Crusade is where her relationship with Louis, already fragile due to lack of a male heir, began to fall apart. No doubt the pious King of France took his role in the Crusade seriously. But what about Eleanor? Maybe not so much. Can you just imagine the scene of the procession as she rode into Constantinople and Antioch with her 300 women dressed to impress with armor and all the splendors of royalty. I think Eleanor viewed the Crusade as one lavish party and not the bloody, deadly war that it actually was. Eleanor was later blamed for being partly responsible when the French army was ambushed by the Turks and almost completely wiped out. In fact, when Louis and Eleanor arrived in Antioch in March of 1148, most of the French foot soldiers had been killed and the majority of his barons had died as well. In Antioch, the ruling seat of Eleanor's uncle Raymond, their relationship deteriorated further. It is not known exactly what happened while they were in Antioch. There are many rumors but nothing we can confirm as factual. We do know that Louis wanted to finish his pilgrimage to Jerusalem and that Eleanor was content to remain at her uncle's court. Eleanor also wanted Louis to help Raymond who was having his own trouble along his western boarder. Eleanor began to spend more and more time with her uncle and less time with Louis. Rumors later surfaced that Eleanor and her uncle were having an incestuous affair. As with every other legend about Eleanor, this rumor is just that, rumor. There is no evidence to confirm an affair, but then again there is no evidence to confirm there wasn't.  Louis finally put his foot down and forcibly removed Eleanor from Antioch and continued on to Jerusalem. By the time Easter of 1149 came around, Louis felt it was time to return to France. The King and Queen set out for the first leg of the journey to Italy on separate ships. Eleanor's ship was captured by the Byzantines and she was held hostage. Luckily she was rescued by the Normans who were at war with Byzantine and was safely reunited with Louis. Together they made their way to Rome to pay their respects to Pope Eugene III. The Pope acted as counselor and tried to amend Eleanor and Louis' marital disagreements. He even issued a decree that anyone who tried to separate the couple would face excommunication.

Eleanor and Louis finally returned to France. They were reconciled long enough to produce another child. Their daughter Alix was born in 1150. But even the birth of Alix could not save their marriage. Maybe it was because Alix was a daughter when Louis clearly needed a male heir. Maybe given the time of  Alix's birth and the rumors about Eleanor and her uncle, Louis questioned her legitimacy. Louis and Eleanor both agreed to have their marriage annulled based on the grounds of consanguinity (having too close a blood kinship).  In March 1152, despite all the Pope could do to prevent it, the King and Queen of France were granted their annulment, leaving both free to marry again. 

Seal of Eleanor of Aquitaine with flower and hawk

Since Eleanor retained the right to rule Aquitaine in her own right, she returned to Poitiers as Duchess of Aquitaine. Her daughters remained at the French court as legitimate daughters where Louis would make important political marriages for them both. The eldest daughter Marie would also inherit Aquitaine unless her mother produced a male heir. 

Eleanor, not yet 40, was once again one of the most eligible women in Europe. As she traveled back to Poitiers, Eleanor evaded an abduction attempt by Geoffrey of Anjou while she was traveling to Poitiers. He lay in wait at Port des Piles, near the River Creuse, and would have married her had the abduction been successful. Eleanor was forewarned and able to escape his plans of capture. Eleanor escaped from another abduction attempt shortly after Geoffrey's failed. This time Theobald V, Count of Blois tried to seize her and her lands for himself.  (Theobald V would later marry her daughter Alix) Eleanor knew that so long as she remained unmarried, her person and her lands were at risk. Eleanor set out to find a worthy husband and 8 weeks after her annulment decree from the king of France, Eleanor was married to Henry Plantagenet, brother to Geoffrey of Anjou. Although younger than Eleanor, Henry didn't seem to mind the age difference, nor did either of them mind they were more closely related that Eleanor and Louis had been. This seems like a hasty married, arranged way too quickly. Perhaps it was. Maybe Eleanor and Henry already knew each other and had already been planning their marriage for some time. They had met on at least one occasion when Henry came to court in Paris in 1151. Gervase of Canterbury in his Historical Works wrote that Eleanor "sent secret messengers to the Duke (Henry) to tell him that she was free again, and urging him to enter into marriage with her." William of Newburgh and several other chroniclers of the time suggest this claim as well. Henry was definitely a worthy match for the rich Duchess. Henry was the complete opposite of Louis. He was not very religious, enjoyed hunting and riding, was described as being bold and athletic and loved the ladies.  He was Duke of Normandy, Count of Anjou and Maine, and had a legitimate claim to the English throne through his grandfather Henry I. The ceremony was very small and not very elaborate; almost secretive. The suggested reason for this is the fact that as Duke of Normandy, Henry was a vassal of the French King and should have asked Louis' permission to marry which he certainly would not have given.

On 25 October 1154, Henry did in fact become Henry II of England when Stephen I died without heir. He and Eleanor were crowned King and Queen of England by the archbishop of Canterbury on 19 December 1154. Eleanor spent much of her time traveling back and forth from England to Aquitaine holding court while Henry was busy waging war against Louis. In Henry's absence she spent money where needed, made charters and decrees. There is only one instance of Henry's nobles not obeying Eleanor's decisions. When this was made known to him, Henry rushed back to England to quell this small rebellion and any objections to Eleanor's rule were never voiced again. 

Eleanor also spent much of her early marriage to Henry pregnant and giving birth to his 8 children. Their first child, a boy named William, was born before they were King and Queen of England and died at three years of age. Their other sons Henry, Richard, Geoffrey, John proved that it was not Eleanor's fault that she and Louis didn't have a male heir. Eleanor also had three daughters with Henry; Matilda, Eleanor and Joanna. Eleanor's marriage to Henry may have started out happy but their relationship too quickly became turbulent. They were both too much alike; too bold, too independent, too outspoken. Henry also had a wandering eye which later put a lot of strain on their marriage when he began to flaunt his infidelities openly at court. By 1168 their marriage had completely deteriorated and they were very seldom together. Eleanor seems to have stayed at Poitiers holding court.

In 1170 Henry II believed he was dying and had Young Henry crowned as co-ruler to ensure a smooth succession when Henry died. He divided the rest of his lands between his four sons. Richard would inherit Eleanor's lands in Aquitaine to which Eleanor had already agreed and been acting to promote. When King Henry recovered from his illness he decided that his land grants where in name only until he actually passed away. Eleanor and her three oldest boys disagreed. They felt they should be allowed to rule their lands that had been given them and not wait for their father's death to make it official. A revolt was brewing with Eleanor right in the middle. Young Henry fled to France where Louis supported his claim as current and rightful ruler, not co-ruler, of England. Eleanor entreated Richard and Geoffrey to stand with Young Henry against their father. Eleanor was pressured to end her part of the rebellion and reconcile herself back to her husband by more than one contemporary. Eleanor had no intention of returning to Henry. Instead she raised an army in Aquitaine to join the rebellion. Henry was the more experienced soldier and one by one put down the revolt in each rebellious territory. He made his way to the place where Eleanor was staying with her uncle Raol de Faye. Eleanor tried to escape by disguising herself as a man but she was captured and held as a prisoner at Chinon. Eleanor's part in the rebellion against Henry was over and soon her sons would be stopped as well. 

For the next 15 years Eleanor would spend her life a closely guarded prisoner under house arrest. Henry made a few moves toward divorce so that he could marry his long time mistress. This would have been a critical hit for Eleanor. She was in her early 50s and would no longer be such a marriageable prize as she was when she and Louis divorced. Once again rumors on Eleanor's part reared their head. Henry revived an old rumor that Eleanor had an affair with his own father years before they were married. And when Henry's mistress suddenly died, Eleanor was rumored to have poisoned her. These rumors of course have no basis in fact. 

Eleanor and Henry's sons fought each other for years over land. Young Henry resented that Richard had more power as Duke of Aquitaine than he had as co-king of England and tried to take Aquitaine from Richard. Henry retrieved Eleanor from house arrest and sent her to treat with her sons. He gave her back full rights to Aquitaine hoping that Richard wouldn't fight his own mother. Ultimately it was the death of Young Henry that ended the fighting. When Geoffrey unexpectedly died Henry II tried to give away his territories John the youngest son, leaving Richard out. Richard once more went to war against his father. This rebellion ended with King Henry II himself dying. Upon Henry's death, Richard the Lionheart, became king of England. Richard released his mother and have her power over England. She also set free many others who had been imprisoned by Henry for political reasons. 

King Richard was crowned in September 1189 with his mother Eleanor by his side. A well known prophecy supposedly spoken by the magician Merlin himself became associated with Eleanor even while she was held captive by Henry. The prophecy was written down and circulated by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his The History of the Kings of Britain. The prophecy refers to an eagle from a broken alliance rejoicing in its third brood. Many believed the eagle to represent Eleanor and the "third brood" to reference her third son Richard who set her free from captivity to reign once more as Queen. Soon after Richard was crowned king of England he took the cross himself and set off on the Third Crusade. Eleanor was left in control of Aquitaine and a the right to exercise power over the Council of Regency that Richard left to govern England. Eleanor and Richard had worked together to secure a marriage for him with Berengaria of Navarre. While Richard was away, his brother John was working to undermine his authority and take England for himself. Eleanor wrote to Richard urging him to return home. Richard did as his mother bid but was captured on his way home and held captive for two years by Henry Vi, Holy Roman Emperor. Meanwhile Eleanor could not keep John under control and he was able to seize power. 

Eleanor worked with the Barons that remained loyal to Richard to help them take back some of the castles and territories taken by John but her main concern was raising funds to pay a ransom to set Richard free from his captivity. She traveled all over gaining the money and support for Richard. When she finally had enough money saved up she traveled to Germany to give up the money. She also offered two of her own grandsons as hostages in place of Richard. Finally, in February of 1194, Richard was freed and along with Eleanor by his side made his way back to England. He put down the revolt he and John repaired their relationship. A second coronation was held to mark his recovery with Eleanor again by his side. His reign as King of England would not last for much longer. He went to Aquitaine to put down another rebellion in 1199 and received a wound from a crossbow bolt that became infected. He sent for Eleanor who rushed to his side and was with him when he died.

Eleanor and Henry's youngest child John became King of England after Richard's death. Eleanor was still much involved in the ruling of England. She was even sent to lead a war defending John's right to the English throne from her 12 year old grandson Arthur. Arthur's claim was backed by Phillip II of France. John and Phillip negotiated a treaty of peace between the two countries and agreed to marry Phillip's heir Louis to one of John's nieces. It was up to Eleanor to journey to Castile (in Spain) to choice which niece was to be the lucky winner. One her way there she was ambushed and captured by Hugh le Brun who refused to recognize Plantagenet rule because his lands has been taken by Henry II. She had to negotiate her own freedom. She was in her 70s. 

War between England and France continued but Eleanor would not be there to see it or an end to the conflict. In April of 1204, Eleanor died at Fontevraud Abbey near Chinon. Her cause of death is unknown. Most likely she died from old age. She was burried at the Abbey alongside her second husband Henry and her son Richard. 

Eleanor and Henry II's effigies at their graves at Fontevraud Abbey

There is much myth and very little fact about Eleanor, but I believe from what historical accounts can be found that she truly was a fierce woman and a born leader. There have been numerous books written and several movies made about Eleanor. She remains an Amazon among women. 

Movies and TV: 

The Lion in Winter - 1968

The Lion in Winter -  2003

The Devil's Crown - 1978

Bios and Novels:

Eleanor of Aquitaine - Marion Meade

Eleanor of Aquitaine: Queen of France and England, Mother of Empires - Sara Cockerill

Eleanor of Aquitaine: A Life - Alison Weir

Eleanor of Aquitaine Trilogy - Elizabeth Chadwick

Fashion Friday: The Kimono

Today when we say the word "Kimono" we visualize the brightly printed flowing gowns as traditional Japanese dress. But the Japanese word originally just meant clothing. Nothing fancy or special, just ki (wear) mono (thing),  something you wear . The kimono evolved during the Heian period( 794-1192) in Japan when the straight-line cut method of sewing was developed. This technique involved cutting pieces of fabric in straight lines and sewing them together as opposed to the previous garments that usually consisted of two separate pieces of clothing. 

Iwasa Matabei - 1650

People began to wear their kimonos in layers during colder weather and over time they started to pay attention to how colors and patterns looked in combination together. Men and women both wore brightly colored kimonos. Sometimes the colors and patterns represented the seasonal time of year, sometimes it represented a person's social standing or political affiliation. Samurai warriors, for example, would wear a color or pattern that identified which feudal lord they served. 

Kimonos are typically hand-sewn into a “T” shape from 8 single straight cut pieces of fabric called tans and tied with an obi, or belt. Using single pieces or panels allows for easy repairs if one panel  gets faded or damaged. To make a kimono you need a piece of fabric 12 to 13 meters (39 to 43 feet) long and 36 to 40 centimeters (14 to 15 inches) wide and cut into eight pieces. These pieces are then sewn back together to create the basic form of the kimono. All of the fabric is used; none is thrown away. 

The obi (belt/sash), holds the kimono in place and keeps the front of the robe closed. Obi are about 4 meters (13 feet) long and 30 centimeters (12 inches) wide. There are two types of obi: Fukuro-obi, which have a design only on one side; and Nagoya-obi, which are narrower in the middle to make them easier to tie around the body. 

There are a few different styles of kimono and what one wears depends usually on gender and age. For example, unmarried girls were a kimono style known as Furisode (swinging sleeve), which has, as the name suggests, long flowing sleeves. Once a woman is married she wears a Tomesode, or short sleeved kimono.

Furisode

Boys wear a Haori,or half-coat kimono displaying his family crest, and flowing trousers called Hamaka underneath, while men where a straight sleeved longer coat called a Happi. (Haori are now becoming more popular among women and worn in place of a light coat or sweater)

There are specific kimonos for paying formal visits, for the hot summer season, and for causal and everyday wear. The patterns and colors of the kimono are what determines the formality and use. The bigger the pattern the more formal,  while smaller printed patterns are casual. Lighter colors are for spring while the winter season calls for dark bold colors like black and red. Performers such as actors and dancers wear Odori, which are very bold and brightly patterned so as to be seen from a distance. Solid black kimonos with a family crest or emblem are reserved for funerals and mourning. 

The kimono is no longer worn for every day dress in Japan. Today it is reserved for special occasions, tea ceremonies, festivals and particular events in a person's life. No matter when they are worn they bring back a sense of beauty, grace and artistry no longer found in today's clothing aesthetics. 

Want to learn more?! Here are a few books to check out!

The Book of Kimono: The complete guide to style and wear - Norio Yamanaka

The Social Life of Kimono: The complete guide to style and wear - Sheila Cliffe

Want to buy your own? Look Here!

Want to try your hand at sewing your own? Here's a WikiHow

The Poetess: Sappho

Sappho was a lyric poet known for her verses on romantic love between women. There is not very much known about the person Psappha, or Sappho as she is known today and most of her poetry has been lost to us due to a variety of reasons. We do know that Sappho was born some time around 620 BCE (7th century) on the Greek island of Lesbos. Her presence there, combined with the love poems she wrote seems to be where the word "lesbian" began. This word was a 19th century term and was not used during Sappho's own time. There are speculations that her family was fairly wealthy and a consensus that she did marry and had a daughter named Kleis. She was exiled to Sicily twice for political reasons, though those reasons have never been specified. One of her students opened a school for girls in her name to which she herself is sometimes given credit for founding. She did organize her own students into a group that worshiped Aphrodite, Goddess of Love. Sappho died somewhere around the year 570, though a specific date or how she died are unknown.

Sappho was known throughout the Greek world for her musical and personal lyric verses. Greek philosopher Plato referred to her as the tenth muse. She invented a completely new meter for poetry, now known as Sapphic Meter or the Sapphic Stanza which consists of three lines of eleven beats and a concluding line of five. Of course the meter is sometimes off when the poems are translated out of their original Aeoilic Greek dialect. 

Though most of her surviving poetry seems to have a focus on lesbian love, there is not definitive proof one way or the other to confirm she was (or was not) a lesbian herself. Her poems certainly can be interpreted as biographical or they can be interpreted as a character role separate from the writer. She did write verses occasionally about other topics typical of the ancient world, including a poem with verses about her own brothers. Her poems were meant to be sung and accompanied by a lyre and her lyrics became known as wedding songs. The Library of Alexandria (shake head and shed tear here for the tragic loss of such wonderful collections) compiled her poems into 9 books. Sadly only one complete poem, Hymn to Aphrodite, and a few verses from other poems survive today. She was honored and praised among her contemporaries and for many centuries after her passing. Statues and coins in her image have been found throughout the Greek world. The only reason Hymn to Aphrodite survived in its entirety is because it was fully quoted by a Roman orator named Dionysus in one of his own works. Sappho was much sought after for her performances and her image was reproduced on all kinds of "merchandise" around the Greek world. Vases, coins, bronze relief and art can be found sporting her image. She was kind of like the world's first pop star!

             

 Fragment 31 

That man to me seems equal to the gods,

            the man who sits opposite you

            and close by listens

            to your sweet voice

          and your enticing laughter—

            that indeed has stirred up the heart in my breast.

            For whenever I look at you even briefly

            I can no longer say a single thing,

            but my tongue is frozen in silence;

     instantly a delicate flame runs beneath my skin;

            with my eyes I see nothing;

            my ears make a ringing noise.

            A cold sweat covers me,

            trembling seizes my body,

        and I am greener than grass.

            Little short of death do I seem.

Tender and longing, ardent and desirous, envious and jealous, bittersweet and rapturous in the moment; Sappho's works are heavy with emotion. Her poems are simple and profound at the same time. They capture the essence of love and life and present them to the audience to experience as well. 

I love the sensual.

For me this

and love for the sun

has a share in brilliance and beauty

I desire

And I crave.

You set me on fire.

A servant

of wile-weaving

Aphrodite...

 Eros

Giver of pain...

 Eros

Coming from heaven

throwing off

his purple cloak.

Again love, the limb-loosener, rattles me

bittersweet,

irresistible,

a crawling beast.

As a wind in the mountains

assaults an oak,

Love shook my breast.

The Three Smith Sisters

  Everyone knows Abigail Adams; wife of John Adams, second President of the United States and her famous "remember the ladies," quote. Few people have much knowledge about her sisters Mary and Elizabeth.


  The Smith girls were born to William and Elizabeth Quincy Smith in Weymouth, Massachusetts. Abigail and her two sisters did not receive a formal education like their brother William, but were taught by their father who was a preacher. Abigail was an avid reader and loved to debate with the students that often met and sometimes lived at the Smith home. She and her sisters were prolific letter writers and always tried to see who could out-write and out-wit the others. The three sisters were very close and wrote to each other as often as their busy home lives would allow. They also believed in equal education for both sexes and all were upset that their brother regarded it disdainfully when it was so accessible to him. All three sisters made sure that their own daughters were taught the classics, philosophy, languages and math and science; subjects that were decidedly male.

  The sisters also became caught up in the politics of the world. As the times in which they lived began to change, so too did the sisters thinking and political ideas began to change. Abigail especially, as the wife of a congressional delegate and then ambassador in Europe, felt the pull of politics and always kept up with political news and ideas and worked tirelessly to help John as he became more important to the formation of the new country. At first all of them craved anything to do with their "Mother Country" of England. As Parliament began to enact taxes that the colonies felt were unjust, so too did the Smith sisters begin to think less of England as home and more of America as their true country. Abigail wrote in 1773 "... the tea that baneful weed is arrived. Great and I hope effectual opposition has been made to the landing of it." Betsy,  writing to her cousin Isaac at Harvard remarked that "A glorious spirit of Liberty prevails among you." The sisters also began making their own homespun clothes instead of fabrics imported from England. 

  Mary, the oldest sister, was born December 9, 1741. When Mary was 14 she met the man with whom she would spend the rest of her life. Richard Cranch was an Englishman staying at the Smith home. He was a quiet, studious man from a poor family, and he was 15 years older than Mary. Richard decided to take it upon himself to tutor Mary and her sisters and he taught them all about Shakespeare, the Enlightenment, French and many other subjects. This of course endeared him to all the females in the Smith household. After Mary and Richard were wed in 1762, they moved to Braintree and then on to Salem. Mary gave birth to her first baby, a daughter she named Elizabeth. Another daughter, Lucy followed. Shortly after their son Billy was born the Cranches moved to Boston after they were chased out of Salem by Tory sympathizers in 1774. Richard was not much of a business man and most of his endeavors did not prosper so the Cranches were not as well off as the Adams. They finally settled in Quincy, Massachusetts, just outside of Boston. For the most part, Mary was content to arrange the lives of her children and nieces and nephews along with the people in Quincy. The Cranches outlived their daughter Betsy and took in their 8 grandchildren. Mary wasted away under the harsh life with tuberculosis and she and Richard died just a few days apart in 1811.

  Abigail was born November 11, 1744. When she was very young, she was sick with rheumatic fever that was so severe she became paralyzed for two weeks. She would have recurring bouts with this sickness throughout her life. It was through Mary's beloved Richard Cranch that Abigail first met John Adams in the summer of 1759. Each had an unfavorable impression of the other. Two years later, upon meeting again, John decided that nothing would do but for him to marry Abigail. Her parents still weren't fond of John and insisted on a long engagement. John and Abigail were married on October 24, 1764. They moved to Braintree and lived in a small house beside John's mother on 23 acres of land. Their first daughter Abigail (Nabby) was born in 1765 and John Quincy was born two years later. Another girl was born but died fourteen months later. Two more boys, Charles and Thomas would complete their family. She did become pregnant again but the baby, a girl, was stillborn.
  
  Since John was away from home for long periods of time, Abigail was tasked with the daily management of their farm; as landlord, farmer, and banker. As John's eminence in America rose so did Abigail's popularity but she missed her husband terribly. When John went off to play ambassador to France, Abigail was beside herself with loneliness and reproached him often for not writing to her. This dismissal from her husband's affections led to a bit of a scandal with another married man named James Lovell. They began a writing correspondence in which he boldly flirted with her and to which she made no move to stop. A letter Lovell wrote to another congressional delegate was intercepted by the British and was printed in a Tory newspaper. In it was sexual reference that made Lovell look bad and embarrassed his wife. This apparently woke Abigail up to the dangers of their correspondence. She sent him a letter scolding him for being so forward but her letter sounds like she was more angry at herself for letting things progress so far out of moral bounds. "No situation more delicate, more critical or more liable to censure than that of a Lady whose Husband is away," she wrote to Lovell. Finally John asked his wife to join him in London. Sister Shaw took in Abigail's youngest sons and saw to their education while she was away. They weren't in England long before John was sent back to France. In 1787 after John had been in Europe for over a decade and Abigail with him for four of those years; the Adams's set sail for America. When John was elected Vice-President of the newly formed United States Abigail was happy for him but not ready to part again. Eventually she went to New York and then to Philadelphia to be with him. As Vice-President, Adams received $5,000 a year but this was not enough to support their two households and Abigail had to scrimp to get by.  When Adams became the second President his salary increased to $25,000. In 1800 the capitol was moved to Washington D.C and Abigail became the first First Lady to live in the White House. When John lost the next presidential election Abigail was happy to return to some kind of normal life at her home Peacefield, located in Quincy. She still worried about money since at that time there was no pension offered to former presidents. The lost of the presidency was compounded by the death of their son Charles from liver failure. They settled into retirement at Peacefield but sadly they outlived their son Thomas, who like Charles and Abigail's brother, died from alcoholism and their daughter Nabby who died from breast cancer. Abigail herself died in 1818 of typhus fever. She was the last of the Smith sisters.

 Elizabeth (Betsy), born on April 7, 1750 was the youngest of the girls. When she was just a young girl she became so ill that the doctor gave strict orders that she was not even to read or write. After Abigail was married, Betsy lived off and on with her in Braintree while John was away working as an ambassador for the colonies. Since Betsy was the youngest, she spent the most time at home nursing her parents as they grew older. Judging from her letters to their Cousin Issac Smith, it appears that Elizabeth may well have been in love with him. Though she refused to confirm her feelings, she wrote to him of their "friendship formed in infancy, which has been cemented by the most rational esteem in maturer years." Eventually, she and Isaac drifted apart and letters became less frequent as life pulled them in different directions, especially when Isaac admitted he was a Tory; sympathetic to the British. In 1773 Elizabeth met John Shaw. She was 22 and he was 24. Abigail did not like Shaw but Betsy assured her that neither had any designs for marriage; writing up a fake official document and attaching Shaw's signature that she cut off from another letter and sending it to Abigail. "We...have no such purpose in our hearts, as has been unjustly surmised." But contrary to the protests John Shaw and Elizabeth were married in 1777. John became a minister and Elizabeth was happy to tend her new home and garden and the new society she met in her new parish of Haverhill. By 1781 the Shaws had two children and when Elizabeth turned 39 she was pregnant with her third child. She named her new daughter after her sister Abigail in hopes of reconciling her to the new baby. Sister Adams was appalled by this late in life pregnancy and even after baby Abbey was born, Abigail refused to write to Elizabeth for months. In 1793 John Shaw passed away in his sleep at the age of 47. In letters later sent between the Smith sisters and the townspeople of Haverhill, it came to light that John Shaw had been an alcoholic and possibly abusive. Elizabeth didn't stay a widow for long. In fact she was courted by several eligible men in the area. One of those men was her old friendly correspondent and cousin Isaac but he waited too long. Another minister, Parson Peabody, was already there proposing on the same day that Isaac had ridden over to do the very same thing. On the day the ceremony was set to take place came a horrible snow storm. The Parson would not wait and arrived promptly on time to pick her up. During the ceremony itself someone came running into the church yelling that her own house was on fire! Their marriage seemed to run much more uneventfully than their wedding day. They set up a school in their home and Elizabeth felt she had found her place in helping to mold future generations. Unfortunately tragedy marred her happy home when her oldest daughter, Betsy Q, contracted tuberculosis and by September 1798 she had passed away. The Peabody's Atkinson Academy continued to prosper. In 1815 Elizabeth passed away in her sleep.

  All three sisters spent their lives living for each other and living to make changes in a changing world. Their letters are lasting evidence of the deep bonds that sisterhood and a collective shared experience can create. They were witness to revolution, rebellion, war, and reform, death, and life. The Smith sisters fought to challenge societal norms by teaching their own children and their grandchildren that a woman's intellect was no less than a man's. Even though they participated in separate spheres, men and women should work to complete and compliment each other. Mary, Abigail and Elizabeth fought to make history and to change the future. 

For further reading:

Dear Abigail: The Intimate Loves and Revolutionary Ideals of Abigail and her two Remarkable Sisters - Diane Jacobs

John Adams - David McCullough

Abigail Adams: Letters - Abigail Adams, Edith Gelles

Abigail Adams - Woody Holton

First Family: Abigail and  John Adams - Joseph J. Ellis